reify

make (something abstract) more concrete or real

From Latin res ("thing") and -fication, a suffix related to facere ("to make"). Thus reification can be loosely translated as "thing-making"; the turning of something abstract into a concrete thing or object.

Reification (fallacy)
(also known as concretism, hypostatization, or the fallacy of misplaced concreteness) is a fallacy of ambiguity, when an abstraction (abstract belief or hypothetical construct) is treated as if it were a concrete
real event or physical entity.[1][2] In other words, it is the error of treating something that is not concrete, such as an idea, as a concrete thing. A common case of reification is the confusion of a model with
reality: "the map is not the territory".

Pathetic fallacy (also known as anthropomorphic fallacy or anthropomorphization)

a specific type of reification. Just as reification is the attribution of concrete characteristics to an abstract idea, a pathetic fallacy is committed when those characteristics are specifically human characteristics,
especially thoughts or feelings.[13] Pathetic fallacy is also related to personification, which is a direct and explicit ascription of life and sentience to the thing in question, whereas the pathetic fallacy is much broader
and more allusive.

Vicious abstractionism

William James used the notion of "vicious abstractionism" and "vicious intellectualism" in various places, especially to criticize Immanuel Kant's and Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel's idealistic philosophies. In The Meaning of
Truth, James wrote:

Let me give the name of "vicious abstractionism" to a way of using concepts which may be thus described: We conceive a concrete situation by singling out some salient or important feature in it, and classing it under that; then,
instead of adding to its previous characters all the positive consequences which the new way of conceiving it may bring, we proceed to use our concept privatively; reducing the originally rich phenomenon to the naked suggestions
of that name abstractly taken, treating it as a case of "nothing but" that concept, and acting as if all the other characters from out of which the concept is abstracted were expunged. Abstraction, functioning in this way, becomes
a means of arrest far more than a means of advance in thought. ... The viciously privative employment of abstract characters and class names is, I am persuaded, one of the great original
sins of the rationalistic mind.

psychologist’s fallacy

In a chapter on "The Methods and Snares of Psychology" in The Principles of Psychology, James describes a related fallacy, the psychologist's fallacy, thus: "The great snare of the psychologist is the confusion of his own stand-
point with that of the mental fact about which he is making his report. I shall hereafter call this the "psychologist’s fallacy" par excellence" (volume 1, p. 196). John Dewey followed James in describing a variety of fallacies, in-
cluding "the philosophic fallacy", "the analytic fallacy", and "the fallacy of definition"

constructs in science

The concept of a "construct" has a long history in science; it is used in many, if not most, areas of science. A construct is a hypothetical explanatory variable that is not directly observable. For example, the concepts of motivation
in psychology, utility in economics, and gravitational field in physics are constructs; they are not directly observable, but instead tools describing natural phenomena.

anodyne

not likely to cause offence or disagreement and somewhat dull.

a painkilling drug or medicine; analgesic

cynosure

1: capitalized : the northern constellation Ursa Minor (Polaris) also : NORTH STAR
2: one that serves to direct or guide
3: a center of attraction or attention


risible

provoking laughter through being ludicrous

(from French risible (14c.) and directly from Late Latin risibilis "laughable, able to laugh," from Latin risus, past participle of ridere "to laugh.")


fungible


(of a product or commodity) replaceable by another identical item; mutually interchangeable. 1818, a word in law originally, from Medieval Latin
fungibilis, from Latin fungi "perform" (see function (n.)) via phrases such as fungi vice "to take the place."


otiose

producing no useful result : FUTILE
being at leisure : IDLE
lacking use or effect : FUNCTIONLESS


scrofulous

of, relating to, or affected with scrofula
having a diseased run-down appearance
morally contaminated


scabrous

rough and covered with, or as if with, scabs.

indecent; salacious


plangent

(of a sound) loud and resonant, with a mournful tone. 1822, from Latin plangentem (nominative plangens), present participle of plangere "to strike, beat" (from PIE root *plak- (2) "to strike").


unprepossessing

not attractive or appealing to the eye.


costive

1.constipated.
2.slow or reluctant in speech or action; unforthcoming.


adumbrate

foreshadow; represent in outline

1580s, "to outline, to sketch," from Latin adumbratus "sketched, shadowed in outline," also "feigned, unreal, sham, fictitious," past participle of adumbrare "cast a shadow over;" in painting, "to represent (a thing) in outline," from ad "to" (see ad-) + umbrare "to cast in shadow," from PIE root *andho- "blind; dark" (see umbrage).


animadversion

criticism, blame, reproof; a critical commentary


revanchism

a policy of seeking to retaliate, especially to recover lost territory.


irredentism

a political and popular movement whose members claim (usually on behalf of their nation), and seek to occupy, territory which they consider "lost" (or "unredeemed"), based on history or legend.


ressentiment

a psychological state resulting from suppressed feelings of envy and hatred which cannot be satisfied.


recrudescence

the revival of material or behavior that had previously been stabilized, settled, or diminished. In medicine, it is usually defined as the recurrence of symptoms after a period of remission or quiescence, in which sense it can sometimes be synonymous with relapse. In a narrower sense it can also be such a recurrence with higher severity than before the remission.


crepuscular

resembling or relating to twilight.


crepitate

crackle


tenebrous

dark; shadowy or obscure

"full of darkness," late 15c., from Old French tenebros "dark, gloomy" (11c., Modern French ténébreux), from Latin tenebrosus "dark," from tenebrae "darkness" (see temerity).


epicene

having characteristics of both sexes or no characteristics of either sex; of indeterminate sex.


ephebe

(in ancient Greece) a young man of 18–20 years undergoing military training.


redoubtable

formidable, especially as an opponent

desuetude

a state of disuse


desiderata

"things desired or desirable, that which is lacking or required," 1650s, plural of desideratum, Latin, literally "something for which desire is felt," noun use of neuter past participle of desiderare "to long for" (see desire (v.)).

A Latin word in English; other offshoots of the Latin verb were nativized in Middle English: desiderable "wished for, desired" (mid-14c.), also "worthy of being admired;" desideracioun "longing, yearning" (late 15c.); desiderantly "with ardent desire" (c. 1500). Also compare obsolete desiderate "feel a desire or longing for" (1640s).

hebetate

to make dull or obtuse


lucubration

writing or study.
"after sixteen years' lucubration he produced this account"
a learned or pedantic piece of writing.


lugubrious

MOURNFUL
especially : exaggeratedly or affectedly

DISMAL


synesthesia

a perceptual phenomenon in which stimulation of one sensory or cognitive pathway leads to involuntary experiences in a second sensory or cognitive pathway.

Types include Grapheme–color synesthesia, Chromesthesia, Spatial sequence synesthesia, Number form, Auditory–tactile synesthesia, Ordinal linguistic personification, Misophonia, Mirror-touch synesthesia, Lexical–gustatory synesthesia

The term is from the Ancient Greek



synecdoche

(from Greek synekdoche, lit. "simultaneous understanding") a figure of speech in which a term for a part of something refers to the whole of something or vice versa.
"gray beard" meaning an old man, "boots on the ground," "lead" for bullets, "paper" for journal article, "plastic" for a credit card, "I was interviewed by the New York Times."


metonymy

when "A" is used to refer to "B", it is a synecdoche if A is a component of B or if B is a component of A, and a metonym if A is commonly associated with B but not part of its whole or a whole of its part. Thus, "20,000 hungry mouths to feed" is a synecdoche because mouths (A) are a part of the people (B) referred to. "Australia votes" is also a synecdoche because Australia is a whole of which the people who voted are a part. On the other hand, "The White House said" is metonymy, but not synecdoche, for the president and his staff, because, although the White House is associated with the president and his staff, the building is not a part of the people.


autonomasia

a kind of metonymy in which an epithet or phrase takes the place of a proper name, such as "the little corporal" for Napoleon I. Conversely, antonomasia can also be using a proper name as an archetypal name, to express a generic idea.


prosopopoeia

a rhetorical device in which a speaker or writer communicates to the audience by speaking as another person or object. The term literally derives from the Greek roots prosopon "face, person", and poiein "to make, to do;" it is also called personification.

Wisdom sings her own praises,
among her own people she proclaims her glory.
In the assembly of the Most High she opens her mouth,
in the presence of his host she tells of her glory:
"From the mouth of the Most High I came forth,
and covered the earth like a mist."

--Sirach 24:1-3 (NAB)

Ah! Sword of the LORD!
When will you find rest?
Return to your scabbard;
stop, be still!
How can it find rest
when the LORD has commanded it?
Against Ashkelon and the seacoast,
there he has appointed it.

--Jeremiah 47:6-7


palimpsest

a manuscript or piece of writing material on which later writing has been superimposed on effaced earlier writing; something reused or altered but still bearing visible traces of its earlier form.


pentimento

"the presence or emergence," in a painting, "of earlier images, forms, or strokes that have been changed and painted over." The artist has changed his or her mind as to the composition during the process of painting. The word is Italian for repentance, from the verb pentirsi, meaning to repent.


portmanteau


a linguistic blend of words, in which parts of multiple words or their phones (sounds) are combined into a new word, as in smog, coined by blending smoke and fog, or motel, from motor and hotel.
In linguistics, a portmanteau is defined as a single morph that represents two or more morphemes.


pleonasm

the use of more words or parts of words than are necessary or sufficient for clear expression: for example black darkness or burning fire. Such redundancy is, by traditional rhetorical criteria, a manifestation of tautology. However, pleonasm may also be used for emphasis


heteroglossia

Heteroglossia is the presence in language of a variety of "points of view on the world, forms for conceptualizing the world in words, specific world views, each characterized by its own objects, meanings and values."[1] For Bakhtin, this diversity of "languages" within a single language brings
into question the basic assumptions of system-based linguistics. Every word uttered, in any specific time or place, is a function of a complex convergence of forces and conditions that are unique to that time and place. Heteroglossia is thus "the base condition governing the operation of
meaning in any utterance" and that which always guarantees "the primacy of context over text."[2] It is an attempt to conceptualize the reality of living discourse, where there is always a tension between centralizing and decentralizing forces, between the imposition of systematic order
and the prior condition of freedom from it. Linguistics, insofar as it is an attempt to systematize language, must always ignore or conceal this reality.


paradigmatic

Every item of language has a paradigmatic relationship with every other item which can be substituted for it (such as cat with dog)


syntagmatic

Every item of language has a syntagmatic relationship with items which occur within the same construction (for example, in The cat sat on the mat, cat with the and sat on the mat). The relationships are like axes, as shown in the accompanying diagram.




Centrifugal vs. Centripetal

Centripetal force is defined as, "the force that is necessary to keep an object moving in a curved path and that is directed inward toward the center of rotation," while
centrifugal force is defined as "the apparent force that is felt by an object moving in a curved path that acts outwardly away from the center of rotation."

Centrifugal and Centripetal langauge can be explained by Bakhtin's characterization of two sets of forces that are present in any utterance:
centripetal forces represent the drive for unitary language, standardisation and linguistic hegemony; centrifugal forces represent the presence of heteroglossia, stratification and decentralisation.


Synchronic vs. Diachronic

A synchronic approach (from Greek syn- "together" and chronos "time") considers a language at a moment in time without taking its history into account.
Synchronic linguistics aims at describing a language at a specific point of time, usually the present.

By contrast, a diachronic approach (from dia- "through" and chronos "time") considers the development and evolution of a language through history. Historical
linguistics is typically a diachronic study.

The concepts were theorized by the Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure. In contrast with most of his predecessors, who focused on historical evolution of languages,
Saussure emphasized the primacy of synchronic analysis of languages to understand their inner functioning, though never forgetting the importance of complementary diachrony.


Ontogeny vs. Phylogeny

ontogeny is the study of the development of organisms, whereas phylogeny is the study of evolution. Furthermore, ontogeny gives the development history of an organism within its own lifetime while phylogeny gives the evolutionary history of a species.


Noumenon vs. Phenomenon

a noumenon is a posited object or event that exists independently of human sense and/or perception. The term noumenon is generally used in contrast with, or in relation to, the term phenomenon, which refers to any object of the senses.


Physis vs. Nomos

The Greeks called these two forces “nomos”, meaning law and order and rationalism, and “physis” (FU-sis), meaning nature (our word physics comes from this: physics is the study of nature)


Cosmology, ontology, teleology

Cosmology (from Greek , kosmos "world" and logia "study of")

The cosmological argument for the existence of God:
Also called the argument from first cause, it was developed in the middle ages by St. Thomas Aquinas who based it on the cosmology (study of the origin of the universe) of the Greek philosopher, Aristotle.

Everything that exists was caused to come into existence by something otherthan itself. That cause was itself caused by something else, as was the previous cause, and so on back. Yet as we trace this
series of causes backwards, we must eventually come to a first cause. We have only one concept that matches our idea of a first cause, itself not caused by anything. That concept is the idea of god. There-
fore, god must exist since there are things in existence today.

Criticism
Some maintain that the argument uses circular reasoning. A circular argument is one that assumes in its premises what is to be proven. In this argument,it is assumed that there must be a first cause (god).
Yet it is possible that the universe has existed for all eternity and that there was no beginning and all causal activity goes on and will go on forever.

Ontology (from Greek , ontos 'being' or 'that which is' and logia "study of") While the etymology is Greek, the oldest extant records of the word itself appeared in 1606

the branch of philosophy that studies concepts such as existence, being, becoming, and reality.

The ontological argument for the existence of God:
An argument from the being and nature of god as developed by St. Anselm:

You have in your mind an idea of god. This idea is the idea of the greatest possible being. If god exists in the mind alone, however, and not in reality, then that would not be god. God, therefore, to be god,
must exist both in the mind and inreality. Therefore, god exists.

A second version of the ontological argument was later developed by Rene Descartes:

My conception of god is such that he has every sort of perfection. Existence is a perfection. Therefore, god necessarily exists.

Criticism
The following criticism was developed by Immanuel Kant who, while believing in god, claimed that god’s existence was a matter of faith, not reason:

The statement “god exists” seems that it is stating that the attribute of “existence” belongs to god like the statement “the cat is black” attributes the quality of blackness to a cat. However, existence is
not really an attribute or predicate because it does not tell us anything more about the subject. Existence is not a predicate or characteristic of god, but an assumption made about the topic of discussion. It
therefore cannot prove god’s existence by assuming that god must have existence.

Teleology from 'aim', or 'goal,' 'end,' or 'purpose,' and , logos, 'explanation' or 'reason')

The teleological argument for the existence of God:
The version presented next was developed by the philosopher William Paley in the 19th century and tries to prove the existence of god through the evident design of the universe. Everything in nature, from the intricate design and complexity of the human
body to the pollination of plants exhibits deliberate design, much like the watch. The difference is that whatever intelligence designed the universe was of far greater capacity than the human mind. This we call god. Therefore, god exists.

Criticism
As an empiricist, Hume demands evidence based on what we know through the observation of our senses.The world as we know is not perfect. How could an all-knowing, perfect godcreate a world that does not have a perfect design.? There is no empirical
evidence of god’s having made and designed the world. I can deduce that a builder made a house because the building of houses has been observed in the world. No one was around to observe the creation, however, therefore we cannot deduce that it was
god’s creation.

In pedagogy, a minimum of apparent teleology can be useful in thinking about and explaining Darwinian evolution even if there is no true teleology driving evolution. Thus it is easier to say that evolution "gave" wolves sharp canine teeth because those teeth
"serve the purpose of" predation regardless of whether there is an underlying non-teleologic reality in which evolution is not an actor with intentions. In other words, because human cognition and learning often rely on the narrative structure of stories with
actors, goals, and immediate (proximal) rather than ultimate (distal) causation (see also proximate and ultimate causation), some minimal level of teleology might be recognized as useful or at least tolerable for practical purposes even by people who reject its
cosmologic accuracy.


open and closed systems

An open system is defined as a “system in exchange of matter with its environment, presenting import and export, building-up and breaking-down of its material components.”

if there is an interaction or feedback loop between ideal and material or subjective and objective then the system is an open system, otherwise it is a closed system. A
closed system offers a deterministic relationship. Rene Descartes’ view of a subject as a determining agent, detached from nature, is a closed system. Georg Wilhelm Fried-
rich Hegel’s view of the world that the idea determines the being is another example of a closed system (although the being then determines the new idea in the next stage
of the dialectical process and the closure is therefore at the 'end of history'— in this sense Hegel's system is an open system).

The laws of thermodynamics

What kind of system are you: open or closed? As it turns out, this is a physics question, not a philosophical one. You, like all living things, are an open system, meaning
that you exchange both matter and energy with your environment. For instance, you take in chemical energy in the form of food, and do work on your surroundings in the form
of moving, talking, walking, and breathing.

Systems and surroundings

the particular item or collection of items that we’re interested in (which could be something as small as a cell, or as large as an ecosystem) is called the system, while
everything that's not included in the system we’ve defined is called the surroundings.

Heat increases the randomness of the universe

The degree of randomness or disorder in a system is called its entropy

There are three types of systems in thermodynamics: open, closed, and isolated.

An open system can exchange both energy and matter with its surroundings. The stovetop example would be an open system, because heat and water vapor can be lost to the air.
A closed system, on the other hand, can exchange only energy with its surroundings, not matter. If we put a very tightly fitting lid on the pot from the previous example,
it would approximate a closed system.
An isolated system is one that cannot exchange either matter or energy with its surroundings. A perfect isolated system is hard to come by, but an insulated drink cooler
with a lid is conceptually similar to a true isolated system. The items inside can exchange energy with each other, which is why the drinks get cold and the ice melts a
little, but they exchange very little energy (heat) with the outside environment.


rheme

In the work of American philosopher C. S. Peirce (1839-1914): having the nature of a rheme; expressing a particular concept or idea. Of a part of a sentence: that provides new information about the theme or topic of an utterance or discourse, carrying the most pragmatically
significant semantic content; that constitutes a rheme.

In semiotics, a sign that represents its object with respect to quality;
In linguistics, the topic, or theme, of a sentence is what is being talked about, and the comment (rheme or focus) is what is being said about the topic. This
division into old vs. new content is called information structure. It is generally agreed that clauses are divided into topic vs. comment, but in certain cases
the boundary between them depends on which specific grammatical theory is being used to analyze the sentence.


septuagint

'seventy'; the earliest extant Koine Greek translation of books from the Hebrew Bible, various biblical apocrypha, and deuterocanonical books.[3] The first
five books of the Hebrew Bible, known as the Torah or the Pentateuch, were translated in the mid-3rd century BC. The remaining books of the Greek Old
Testament are presumably translations of the 2nd centu


Torah/Pentateuch

The precise process by which the Torah was composed, the number of authors involved, and the date of each author remain hotly contested, however. Throughout
most of the 20th century, there was a scholarly consensus surrounding the documentary hypothesis, which posits four independent sources, which were later
compiled together by a redactor: J, the Jahwist source, E, the Elohist source, P, the Priestly source, and D, the Deuteronomist source. The earliest of these
sources, J, would have been composed in the late 7th or the 6th century BCE, with the latest source, P, being composed around the 5th century BCE.


necromancy

the practice of magical sorcery involving communication with the dead by summoning their spirits as apparitions or visions, or by resurrection for the purpose of divination; imparting the means to foretell future events; discovery of hidden
knowledge; "returning a person to life", or to use the dead as a weapon.


chiromancy

(also palmistry) the supposed prediction of a person's future from interpreting the lines on the palms of their hands;


chiasmus

In rhetoric, chiasmus or, less commonly, chiasm (Latin term from Greek , "crossing", from the Greek , , "to shape like the letter Χ"), is a "reversal of grammatical structures in successive phrases or clauses – but no repetition of words"

Chiasmus balances words or phrases with similar, though not identical, meanings:

But O, what damned minutes tells he o'er
Who dotes, yet doubts; suspects, yet strongly loves.

--Shakespeare, Othello 3.3

"Dotes" and "strongly loves" share the same meaning and bracket, as do "doubts" and "suspects".

Additional examples of chiasmus:

By day the frolic, and the dance by night.

--Samuel Johnson, The Vanity of Human Wishes (1794)

Despised, if ugly; if she's fair, betrayed.

--Mary Leapor, "Essay on Woman" (1751)

For comparison, the following are considered antimetabole, in which the reversal in structure involves the same words:

Pleasure's a sin, and sometimes sin's a pleasure.

--Lord Byron, in Don Juan, (1824)


periphrasis

from the Greek word periphrazein, which means "talking around." It is a stylistic device that can be defined as the use of excessive and longer words to convey a meaning which could have been conveyed with a shorter expression, or in a few words. [Examples: "‘Under the impression,’ said Mr. Micawber, ‘that your peregrinations in this metropolis have not as yet been extensive, and that you might have some difficulty in penetrating the arcana of the Modern Babylon in the direction of the City Road--in short,’ said Mr. Micawber, in another burst of confidence, ‘that you might lose yourself--I shall be happy to call this evening, and install you in the knowledge of the nearest way...'"[David Copperfield]; “I was within a hair’s-breadth of the last opportunity for pronouncement, and I found with humiliation that probably I would have nothing to say.”[The Importance of Being Earnest]


phonaesthetics

the study of "phonaesthesia": sound symbolism. For instance, the British linguist David Crystal, who has compiled research on popular perceptions of beautiful-sounding English words, regards phonaesthetics as the "study of aesthetic properties of sounds, especially the sound symbolism attributable to individual sounds".[2] An example is that English speakers tend to make an association of unpleasantness with the sound sl- in such words as sleazy, slime, slug, and slush, or an association of formless repetition with -tter in such words as chatter, glitter, flutter, and shatter


eschatology

a part of theology concerned with the final events of history, or the ultimate destiny of humanity. This concept is commonly referred to as the "end of the world" or "end times".The word arises from the Greek eschatos meaning "last" and -logy meaning "the study of", and first appeared in English around 1844.


parataxis

a literary technique, in writing or speaking, that favors short, simple sentences, without conjunctions or with the use of coordinating, but not with subordinating conjunctions.
Parataxis refers to the placing of two clauses next to one another without the use of subordinating conjunctions or coordinating conjunctions to clarify the relationship between
the clauses. The omission of the conjunctions is also known as asyndeton. Sentences written in the paratactic style often use semicolons or commas to separate two or more
independent clauses. The definition of parataxis derives from the Greek word paratassein meaning “placing side by side.”

Perhaps the most iconic example of parataxis is attributed to Julius Caesar: "Veni, vidi, vici."

Another, lengthier example can be found in Charles Dickens’ The Pickwick Papers (1867):

“Come along, then,” said he of the green coat, lugging Mr. Pickwick after him by main force, and talking the whole way. “Here, No. 924, take your fare, and take yourself off--respectable
gentleman--know him well--none of your nonsense--this way, sir--where’s your friends?--all a mistake, I see--never mind--accidents will happen--best regulated families--never say die--down
upon your luck--pull him up--put that in his pipe--like the flavour--damned rascals.” And with a lengthened string of similar broken sentences, delivered with extraordinary volubility, the stranger
led the way to the traveler’s waiting-room, whither he was closely followed by Mr. Pickwick and his disciples.


hypotaxis

Hypotaxis refers to the arrangement of a sentence in which the main clause is built upon by phrases or subordinate clauses. Hypotactic sentence construction uses subordinating conjunctions and
relative pronouns to connect a sentence’s main clause to its dependent elements. By explicitly defining a clear connection and order between the clauses through syntactic subordination, hypotactic
sentences establish a hierarchy of importance

the grammatical arrangement of functionally similar but "unequal" constructs (from Greek hypo- "beneath", and taxis "arrangement"); certain constructs have more importance than others inside a sentence.

A common example of syntactic expression of hypotaxis is the subordination of one syntactic unit to another in a complex sentence. Another example is observed in premodification. In the phrase "inexpensive
composite materials", "composite" modifies "materials" while "inexpensive" modifies the complex head "composite materials", rather than "composite" or "materials". In this example the phrase units are hierar-
chically structured, rather than being on the same level, as compared to the example "Cockroaches love warm, damp, dark places." Note the syntactic difference; hypotactic modifiers cannot be separated by a comma.

A notable instance of hypotaxis can be found in an excerpt from an issue of Rambler, an eighteenth-century periodical, by Samuel Johnson:

Among the innumerable practices by which interest or envy have taught those who live upon literary fame to disturb each other at their airy banquets, one of
the most common is the charge of plagiarism. When the excellence of a new composition can no longer be contested, and malice is compelled to give way to the
unanimity of applause, there is yet this one expedient to be tried, by which the author may be degraded, though his work be reverenced; and the excellence
which we cannot obscure, may be set at such a distance as not to overpower our fainter lustre. This accusation is dangerous, because, even when it is false,
it may be sometimes urged with probability.


syntaxis

a style in writing or in rhetoric that favors complex syntax, in contrast to the simple sentence structures of parataxis.


praxis

(from Ancient Greek: romanized: praxis) is the process by which a theory, lesson, or skill is enacted, embodied,
or realized. "Praxis" may also refer to the act of engaging, applying, exercising, realizing, or practicing ideas.


crasis

from the Greek , "mixing", "blending")[2] is a type of contraction in which two vowels or diphthongs merge into
one new vowel or diphthong, making one word out of two (univerbation).


propaedeutics

(from Ancient Greek: propaídeusis 'preparatory education') is a historical term for an introductory course into an art or science.


prolepsis


1. the anticipation and answering of possible objections in rhetorical speech.

2. the representation of a thing as existing before it actually does or did so, as in he was a dead man when he entered.


anaphora

1. the use of a word referring back to a word used earlier in a text or conversation, to avoid repetition, for example the pronouns he, she, it, and they and the verb do in I like it and so do they.

2. a rhetorical device that consists of repeating a sequence of words at the beginnings of neighboring clauses, thereby lending them emphasis.


epistrophe

the repetition of the same word or words at the end of successive phrases, clauses or sentences.


gestalt

(from German for "form" or "shape") an organized whole that is perceived as more than the sum of its parts.

There are six individual principles commonly associated with gestalt theory: similarity, continuation, closure, proximity, figure/ground, and symmetry & order (also called pragnanz).


synaesthesia

perceptual phenomenon in which stimulation of one sensory or cognitive pathway leads to automatic, involuntary experiences in a second sensory or cognitive pathway.


syndeton, polysyndeton, asyndeton

Syndeton (from the Greek "bound together with") or syndetic coordination in grammar is a form of syntactic coordination of the elements of a sentence (conjuncts)
with the help of a coordinating conjunction. ("I will have eggs and ham".)

Asyndeton from the Greek: , "unconnected", sometimes called asyndetism) is a literary scheme in which one or several conjunctions are deliberately omitted from a series of related clauses.
"I came, I saw, I conquered". "Quickly, resolutely, he strode into the bank." "This is the villain among you who deceived you, who cheated you, who meant to betray you completely".
"We shall go on to the end, we shall fight in France, we shall fight on the seas and oceans, we shall fight with growing confidence and growing strength in the air, we shall defend
our Island, whatever the cost may be, we shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight on the landing grounds, we shall fight in the fields and in the streets, we shall fight in the
hills; we shall never surrender. . ."

polysyndeton from the Ancient Greek and syndeton, meaning "bound together with".[1] A stylistic scheme, polysyndeton is the deliberate insertion of conjunctions into a sentence for
the purpose of "slow[ing] up the rhythm of the prose" so as to produce "an impressively solemn note."

Author Ernest Hemingway employs the conjunction "and" to convey "a flow and continuity of experience" in a passage from his short story "After the Storm":

"I said, 'Who killed him?' and he said 'I don't know who killed him, but he's dead all right,' and it was dark and there was water standing in the street and no lights or windows broke and boats all up in the town and trees blown down and everything all blown and I got a skiff and went out and found my boat where I had her inside Mango Key and she was right only she was full of water."

The poet John Keats used conjunctions in a verse from "Endymion":

"And soon it lightly dipped, and rose, and sank,
And dipped again..."

"Though his face be better than any man's, yet his leg excels all men's, and for a hand and a foot and a body, though they be not to be talked on, yet they are past compare" (Romeo and Juliet 2.5.42–5)


sublation

In Hegel, the term Aufhebung has the apparently contradictory implications of both preserving and changing, and eventually advancement (the German verb
aufheben means "to cancel", "to keep" and "to pick up"). The tension between these senses suits what Hegel is trying to talk about. In sublation, a term or
concept is both preserved and changed through its dialectical interplay with another term or concept. Sublation is the motor by which the dialectic
functions.

Sublation can be seen at work at the most basic level of Hegel's system of logic. The two concepts Being and Nothing are each both preserved and changed
through sublation in the concept Becoming. Similarly, in the Science of Logic (Doctrine of Being) determinateness, or quality, and magnitude, or quantity,
are each both preserved and sublated in the concept measure.


hierophany

a manifestation of the sacred. The word is a formation of the Greek adjective hieros (Greek: , 'sacred, holy') and the verb phainein (, 'to reveal, to bring to light').


hierophant

a person who brings religious congregants into the presence of that which is deemed holy. The word comes from ancient Greece, where it was constructed from the combination of ta hiera, "the holy", and phainein, "to show". In Attica it was the title of the chief priest at the Eleusinian Mysteries. A hierophant is an interpreter of sacred mysteries and arcane principles.


anchorite

mid-15c., "hermit (especially those of the Eastern deserts in the two centuries after c. 300 C.E.), recluse, one who withdraws from the world for religious reasons," from Medieval Latin anchorita, Late Latin anchoreta, from Greek anakhoretes,
literally "one who has retired," agent noun from anakhorein "to retreat, go back, retire (from battle, the world, etc.)," from ana "back" (see ana-) + khorein "withdraw, give place," from khoros "place, space, free space, room,"


cuneiform

one of the earliest systems of writing, was invented by the Sumerians. It is distinguished by its wedge-shaped marks on clay tablets, made by means of a blunt reed for a stylus. The name cuneiform itself simply means "wedge shaped"




Hieratic

a cursive writing system used for Ancient Egyptian, and the principal script used to write that language from its development in the 3rd millennium BCE until the rise of Demotic in the mid 1st millennium BCE

of or concerning priests. "he raised both his arms in a hieratic gesture."


A page from the Ebers Papyrus, written c. 1500 B.C. A prescription
dating from the 1st Dynasty (circa 3400 B.C,) is mentioned in one passage.
Papyrus was discovered at Thebes 1862.


Demotic

1. of or relating to the people

2. the ancient Egyptian script derived from northern forms of hieratic used in the Nile Delta, and the stage of the Egyptian language written in this script, following Late Egyptian and preceding Coptic. The term was first used by the Greek historian Herodotus to distinguish it from hieratic and hieroglyphic scripts.


Ostracon with Demotic inscription. Ptolemaic Kingdom, c. 305-
30 BC. Probably from Thebes. It is a prayer to the god Amun to
heal a man's blindness.


Coptic

the latest stage of the Egyptian language, a northern Afro-Asiatic language spoken in Egypt until at least the 17th century
as an official language. Egyptian began to be written in the Coptic alphabet, an adaptation of the Greek alphabet with the
addition of six or seven signs from Demotic to represent Egyptian sounds the Greek language did not have, in the 1st
century AD.


Fifthsixth century Coptic liturgic inscription from Upper Egypt.


Ogham

an Early Medieval alphabet used primarily to write the early Irish language (in the "orthodox" inscriptions, 4th to 6th centuries CE), and later the Old Irish language. (scholastic ogham, 6th to 9th centuries)
There are roughly 400 surviving orthodox inscriptions on stone monuments throughout Ireland and western Britain, the bulk of which are in southern Munster.




valence (psychology)

the affective quality referring to the intrinsic attractiveness/"good"-ness (positive valence) or averseness/"bad"-ness (negative valence) of an event, object, or situation. Ambivalence can be viewed as conflict between positive and negative valence-carriers.


valency (linguistics)

the number and type of arguments controlled by a predicate, content verbs being typical predicates. Valency is related, though not identical, to subcategorization and transitivity, which count only object arguments valency counts all arguments, including the subject. The linguistic meaning of valency derives from the definition of valency in chemistry.


argument vs. adjunct

Jill likes Jack.
Sam fried the meat.
The old man helped the young man.

Each of these sentences contains two arguments (in bold), the first noun (phrase) being the subject argument, and the second the object argument.

When additional information is added to our three example sentences, one is dealing with adjuncts, e.g.

Jill really likes Jack.
Jill likes Jack most of the time.
Jill likes Jack when the sun shines.
Jill likes Jack because he's friendly.

While typical verb arguments are subject or object nouns or noun phrases as in the examples above, they can also be prepositional phrases (PPs) (or even other categories). The PPs in bold in the following sentences are arguments:

Sam put the pen on the chair.
Larry does not put up with that.
Bill is getting on my case.

We know that these PPs are (or contain) arguments because when we attempt to omit them, the result is unacceptable:

*Sam put the pen.
*Larry does not put up.
*Bill is getting.

sorites paradox


a paradox that arises from vague predicates. Then tension between small changes and big consequences gives rise to the Sorites Paradox. There are many variations some of which allow consideration of the difference between being (a question of fact) and seeming (a question of perception). The word "sorites" derives from the Greek word for heap. If a heap is reduced by a single grain at a time, at what exact point does it cease to be considered a heap?

This paradox can be reconstructed for a variety of predicates, for example, with "tall", "rich", "old", "blue", "bald", and so on. Bertrand Russell argued that all of natural language, even logical connectives, is vague; moreover, representations of propositions are vague.




continuum fallacy

the argument that two states or conditions cannot be considered distinct (or do not exist at all) because between them there exists a continuum of states. Narrowly speaking, the Sorites paradox refers to situations where there are many discrete states (classically between 1 and 1,000,000 grains of sand, hence 1,000,000 possible states), while the continuum fallacy refers to situations where there is (or appears to be) a continuum of states, such as temperature-- is a room hot or cold? Whether any continua exist in the physical world is the classic question of atomism. What appear to be continua may, at base, simply be very many discrete states.


Excelsior

a Latin comparative word often translated as "ever upwards" or "even higher"


Kyrie Eleison




Mise en abyme


"placed into abyss" a transgeneric and transmedial technique, which can occur in any literary genre, in comics, film, painting or other media. It is a form of similarity and/or repetition, and hence a variant of self-reference. In Western art history, a formal technique of placing a copy of an image within itself, often in a way that suggests an infinitely recurring sequence. In film theory and literary theory, it refers to the technique of inserting a story within a story. The term is derived from heraldry. It was first appropriated for modern criticism by the French author Andre Gide.




Mise-en-scene


"placing on stage" is the stage design and arrangement of actors in scenes for a theatre or film production, both in visual arts through storyboarding,
visual theme, and cinematography, and in narrative storytelling through direction. The term is also commonly used to refer to single scenes that are
representative of a film. Mise-en-scene has been called film criticism's "grand undefined term".


In medias res

A narrative work beginning in medias res (Classical Latin: lit. "into the middle of things") opens in the midst of the plot. Often, exposition is bypassed and filled in gradually, either through dialogue, flashbacks or description of past events.


tableau vivant

often shortened to tableau; French for "living picture", is a static scene containing one or more actors or models. They are stationary and silent, usually in costume, carefully posed, with props and/or scenery, and may be theatrically lit. It thus combines aspects of theatre and the visual arts.

A tableau may either be 'performed' live, or depicted in painting, photography and sculpture, such as in many works of the Romantic, Aesthetic, Symbolist, Pre-Raphaelite, and Art Nouveau movements.


soi distant

self-proclaimed


sui generis

Latin: "of its (his, her, their) own kind; in a class by itself; unique."


sine qua non

Latin: "[a condition] without which it could not be", or "but for..." or "without which [there is] nothing"; an indispensable and essential action, condition, or ingredient. It was originally a Latin legal term.


ne plus ultra

Latin: From Latin ne (“not”) plus (“more”) ultra (“beyond”). the perfect or most extreme example of its kind; the ultimate


haute couture

French for 'high sewing', 'high dressmaking', or 'high fashion') is the creation of exclusive custom-fitted clothing. Haute couture is high-end fashion that is constructed by hand from start to finish, made from
high-quality, expensive, often unusual fabric and sewn with extreme attention to detail


eclat

brilliance of success, reputation, etc.; showy or elaborate display; acclamation; acclaim.


Roman a clef

French for novel with a key, is a novel about real-life events that is overlaid with a façade of fiction.[2] The fictitious names in the novel represent real people, and the "key" is the relationship between the nonfiction
and the fiction. This metaphorical key may be produced separately--typically as an explicit guide to the text by the author--or implied, through the use of epigraphs or other literary techniques.


coup d'oeil

a term taken from French, that more or less corresponds to the words glimpse or glance in English. The literal meaning is "stroke of [the] eye".


non compos mentis

of unsound mind (non "not" and compos mentis ("having control of one's mind")


Hortus conclusus

Latin term, meaning literally "enclosed garden".

The term hortus conclusus is derived from the Vulgate Bible's Canticle of Canticles (also called the Song of Songs or Song of Solomon) 4:12, in Latin:
"Hortus conclusus soror mea, sponsa, hortus conclusus, fons signatus" ("A garden enclosed is my sister, my spouse; a garden enclosed, a fountain sealed up.")
This provided the shared linguistic culture of Christendom, expressed in homilies expounding the Song of Songs as allegory where the image of King Solomon's
nuptial song to his bride was reinterpreted as the love and union between Christ and the Church, the mystical marriage with the Church as the Bride of
Christ.

The Virgin Mary as hortus conclusus

The verse "Thou art all fair, my love; there is no spot in thee" (4.7) from the Song was also regarded as a scriptural confirmation of the developing and
still controversial doctrine of Mary's Immaculate Conception--being born without Original Sin ("macula" is Latin for spot).


en deshabille

in a state of undress


declasse

"reduced to or having low or lower status": fallen or lowered in class, rank, or social position.


in loco parentis

in the place of a parent

manque

having failed to become what one might have been


faiblesse

weakness, foible


parta tueri

LATIN

defend what you have won


cri de coeur

(French: "a cry from the heart") a passionate appeal, complaint, or protest.


weltschmerz

German for “world pain,” was also coined during the Romantic Era and is in many ways the German version of ennui. It describes a world weariness felt from a perceived mismatch between the ideal image of how the world should be with how it really is.


weltanschauung

German for “world perception,” a particular philosophy or view of life; the world view of an individual or group.


sangfroid

coolness of mind; calmness; composure:
ORIGIN OF SANG-FROID
174050; < French: literally, cold blood >


schadenfreude

Pleasure derived by someone from another person's misfortune.Origin
German Schadenfreude, from Schaden ‘harm’ + Freude ‘joy’.


schwarmerei

excessive sentiment (from German schwarmen to be enthusiastic, literally, to swarm)


bumpf

obvious or blatant propaganda; [from bumf toilet paper] short for bumfodder,useless or tedious printed information or documents -- material whose only conceivable use was to be torn up, hung up on a nail in the privy and used as toilet paper


rodomontade

a mass noun meaning boastful talk or behavior. The term is a reference to Rodomonte, a character in Italian Renaissance epic poems Orlando innamorato and its sequel Orlando furioso.


blattering

Senseless babble or boasting


roue

a debauched man, especially an elderly one.


fons et origo

a Latin term meaning "source and origin". Typical usage of the term describes Athens as the fons et origo of democracy, or Italy as the fons et origo of classical music.


causerie

(from French, "talk, chat") is a literary style of short informal essays mostly unknown in the English-speaking world. A causerie is generally short, light and humorous and is often published as a newspaper column


contretemps

1: an inopportune or embarrassing occurrence or situation
2: DISPUTE, ARGUMENT


casus belli

"occasion for war"; is an act or an event that either provokes or is used to justify a war.


auto-da-fe

(from Portuguese auto da fe, meaning 'act of faith') was the ritual of public penance carried out between the 15th and 19th centuries of condemned heretics and apostates imposed by the Spanish, Portuguese,
or Mexican Inquisition as punishment and enforced by civil authorities. Its most extreme form was death by burning.


daimonion

an inward mentor conceived as partaking of the nature of a demon or inspired by one


Amor fati

"love of fate" or "love of one's fate".　Used to describe an attitude in which one sees everything that happens in one's life, including suffering and loss, as good or, at the very least, necessary.


peristyle


In Hellenistic Greek and Roman architecture a continuous porch formed by a row of columns surrounding the perimeter of building or a courtyard




pergola

an outdoor garden feature forming a shaded walkway, passageway, or sitting area of vertical posts or pillars that usually support cross-beams and a sturdy open lattice, often upon which woody vines are trained.





parterre

a formal garden constructed on a level substrate, consisting of plant beds, typically in symmetrical patterns, which are separated and connected by paths. The borders of the plant beds may be formed with stone or tightly pruned hedging,


loggia

a covered exterior gallery or corridor usually on an upper level, or sometimes ground level. The outer wall is open to the elements, usually supported by a series of columns or arches.




turret

(from Italian: torretta, little tower; Latin: turris, tower) is a small tower that projects vertically from the wall of a building such as a medieval castle.




cupola

small, most often dome-like, tall structure on top of a building. Often used to provide a lookout or to admit light and air




belvedere

an architectural structure sited to take advantage of a fine or scenic view. While a belvedere may be built in the upper part of a building the actual structure can be of any form, whether a turret, a cupola, or an open gallery. Or it may be a separate pavilion in a garden, or the term may be used for a paved terrace with a good viewpoint, but no actual building.

It may also be used for a whole building, as in the Belvedere, Vienna, a huge palace, or Belvedere Castle, a folly in New York.




Ogee

the name given to objects, elements, and curves--often seen in architecture and building trades--that have been variously described as serpentine, extended S or sigmoid-shaped.




finial

A finial or hip-knob is an element marking the top or end of some object, often formed to be a decorative feature




aumbry

a small recess or cupboard in the wall of a church. a small cupboard.



rood

a cross or crucifix, especially the large Crucifixion set above the entrance to the chancel of a medieval church


font/stoup

a basin for holy water, especially on the wall near the door of a Roman Catholic church for worshippers to dip their fingers in before crossing themselves.




sacristy/vestry

a room in Christian churches for the keeping of vestments (such as the alb and chasuble) and other church furnishings, sacred vessels, and parish records.




monstrance/ ostensorium

a vessel used in Roman Catholic, Old Catholic, High Church Lutheran and Anglican churches for the more convenient exhibition of some object of piety, such as the consecrated Eucharistic host during Eucharistic adoration or Benediction of the Blessed Sacrament.
It is also used as reliquary for the public display of relics of some saints.




pyx

a small round container used in the Catholic, Old Catholic and Anglican Churches to carry the consecrated host (Eucharist), to the sick or those who are otherwise unable to come to a church in order to receive Holy Communion.




reliquary

a container for relics



reredos

a large altarpiece, a screen, or decoration placed behind the altar in a church. It often includes religious images




nave

the central part of a church, stretching from the (normally western) main entrance or rear wall, to the transepts, or in a church without transepts, to the chancel.





transept

a transverse part of any building, which lies across the main body of the edifice.[1] In churches, a transept is an area set crosswise to the nave in a cruciform ("cross-shaped") building




chancel / presbytery

the space around the altar, including the choir and the sanctuary (sometimes called the presbytery), at the liturgical east end of a traditional Christian church building.It may terminate in an apse. It is generally the area used by the clergy and choir during worship, while the congregation is in the nave.




apse

(from Latin absis: "arch, vault" from Greek apsis "arch") a semicircular recess covered with a hemispherical vault or semi-dome, also known as an exedra. In Byzantine, Romanesque, and Gothic Christian church (including cathedral and abbey) architecture, the term is applied to a semi-circular or polygonal termination of the main building at the liturgical east end (where the altar is), regardless of the shape of the roof, which may be flat, sloping, domed, or hemispherical.







pilaster

an architectural element in classical architecture used to give the appearance of a supporting column and to articulate an extent of wall, with only an ornamental function. It consists of a flat surface raised from the main wall surface, usually treated as though it were a column, with a capital at the top, plinth (base) at the bottom, and the various other elements.




corbel

a structural piece of stone, wood or metal jutting from a wall to carry a superincumbent weight, a type of bracket




cornice

generally any horizontal decorative moulding that crowns a building or furniture element—for example, the cornice over a door or window, around the top edge of a pedestal, or along the top of an interior wall.




plinth

pedestal (from French piedestal, Italian piedistallo, "foot of a stall") is the support of a statue or a vase




bay

In architecture, a bay is the space between architectural elements, or a recess or compartment. Bay comes from Old French baee, meaning an opening or hole.


mullion

vertical or horizontal element that forms a division between units of a window or screen, or is used decoratively. When dividing adjacent window units its primary purpose is a rigid support to the glazing of the window.



wainscoting

paneling; the term wainscot originally applied to high quality riven oak boards. Wainscot oak came from large, slow-grown forest trees, and produced boards that were knot-free, low in tannin, light in weight, and easy to work with. It was preferred to home-grown oak, especially in Holland and Great Britain


lath

a thin flat strip of wood, especially one of a series forming a foundation for the plaster of a wall.



mansard

(also called a French roof or curb roof) is a four-sided gambrel-style hip roof characterized by two slopes on each of its sides with the lower slope, punctured by dormer windows, at a steeper angle than the upper. The steep roof with windows creates an additional floor of habitable space (a garret), and reduces the overall height of the roof for a given number of habitable stories.


Mansard rooftops along Boulevard Haussmann in Paris constructed during the Second French Empire.


gambrel

a usually symmetrical two-sided roof with two slopes on each side. (The usual architectural term in eighteenth-century England and North America was "Dutch roof.") The upper slope is positioned at a shallow angle, while the lower slope is steep.




gable

the generally triangular portion of a wall between the edges of intersecting roof pitches. The term gable wall or gable end more commonly refers to the entire wall, including the gable and the wall below it.




prie-dieu

a piece of furniture for use during prayer, consisting of a kneeling surface and a narrow upright front with a rest for the elbows or for books.




gibbet

any instrument of public execution (including guillotine, executioner's block, impalement stake, hanging gallows, or related scaffold), but gibbeting refers to the use of a gallows-type structure from which the dead or dying bodies of criminals were hung on public display




caryatid

a sculpted female figure serving as an architectural support taking the place of a column or a pillar supporting an entablature on her head


The Caryatid porch of the Erechtheion in Athens, Greece


annulate

having rings; marked with or formed of rings; a chemical reaction in which a new ring is constructed on a molecule.


blazon

a formal description of a coat of arms, flag or similar emblem, from which the reader can reconstruct the appropriate image


quatrefoil

a decorative element consisting of a symmetrical shape which forms the overall outline of four partially overlapping circles of the same diameter.




spinney

a small area of trees and bushes. (synonomous with "copse")


copse, coppice

In a coppiced wood, which is called a copse, young tree stems are repeatedly cut down to near ground level, resulting in a stool. New growth emerges, and after a number of years.



sward

an expanse of short grass


swale

a low or hollow place, especially a marshy depression between ridges.



boscage

a mass of trees or shrubs (synonomous with "forest")


hummock

a small knoll or mound above ground. They are typically less than 15 meters (50 ft) in height and tend to appear in groups or fields




Wold

an Old English term for a forest or an area of woodland on high ground; it is cognate with the Dutch word woud and with the German word Wald, as well as low German Wohld, all meaning forest


chaparral

derived from the Spanish word chaparro (translation: "a forest made of short trees")




arroyo

also called a wash, is a dry creek, stream bed or gulch that temporarily or seasonally fills and flows after sufficient rain. Flash floods are common in arroyos following thunderstorms.




malpais

Spanish for "badlands." in the Southwestern United States, Spain, Mexico, and other Spanish-speaking regions, are rough and barren landscapes that consist of relict and largely uneroded lava fields exhibiting
recognizable lava flows, volcanic cones, and other volcanic landforms. This type of volcanic landscape is extremely rough and difficult to traverse.


El Malpais National Monument, New Mexico


purlieu

the area near or surrounding a place; a tract on the border of a forest, especially one earlier included in it and still partly subject to forest laws.


withy

a strong flexible willow stem, typically used in thatching and for gardening


A pollarded willow with a crop of withies ready for harvest

bight

a bend or curve in a coastline, river, or other geographical feature. It typically indicates a large, open bay, often only slightly receding.


A stretch of coastline of the Great Australian Bight


littoral

the part of a sea, lake or river that is close to the shore. In coastal environments the littoral zone extends from the high water mark, which is rarely inundated, to shoreline areas that are permanently submerged.




caldera

a large cauldron-like hollow that forms shortly after the emptying of a magma chamber in a volcanic eruption.




tumulus

a mound of earth and stones raised over a grave or graves. Tumuli are also known as barrows, burial mounds or kurgans, and may be found throughout much of the world. A cairn, which is a mound of stones built for various purposes, may also originally have been a tumulus


cairn

a man-made pile (or stack) of stones erected as landmarks, a use they have had since ancient times. However, since prehistory, they have also been built and used as burial monuments; for defense and hunting; for ceremonial purposes, sometimes relating to astronomy;




dolmen

portal tomb is a type of single-chamber megalithic tomb, usually consisting of two or more upright megaliths supporting a large flat horizontal capstone or "table". Most date from the early Neolithic (4000-3000 BCE) and were sometimes covered with earth or smaller stones
to form a tumulus (burial mound).




sconce

a small protective fortification, such as an earthwork




embrasure

the opening in a battlement between the two raised solid portions, referred to as crenel or crenelle in a space hollowed out throughout the thickness of a wall by the establishment of a bay.
This term designates the internal part of this space, relative to the closing device, door or window. In fortification this refers to the outward splay of a window or arrowslit on the inside.


A loophole or inverted keyhole embrasure, allowing both arrow fire 　　　Pillbox stepped embrasure, Taunton Stop Line, England
(through the arrowslit at the top) and small cannon fire through the
circular openings, Fort-la-Latte, France


merlon

the solid upright section of a battlement (a crenellated parapet) in medieval architecture or fortifications. Merlons are sometimes pierced
by narrow, vertical embrasures or slits designed for observation and fire. The space between two merlons is called a crenel, and a succession
of merlons and crenels is a crenellation.




crenellation

from Latin crenella as a diminutive of crena (literally “a notch or serration”) common English word cranny, similarly meaning “a small opening, as in a wall or rock face; a crevice”


machicolation

a floor opening between the supporting corbels of a battlement, through which stones or other material, such as boiling water or boiling cooking oil, could be dropped on attackers at the base of a defensive wall.




postern

a secondary door or gate in a fortification such as a city wall or castle curtain wall. Posterns were often located in a concealed location which allowed the occupants to come and go inconspicuously




pillbox

a type of blockhouse, or concrete dug-in guard post, normally equipped with loopholes through which to fire weapons. It is in effect a trench firing step hardened to protect against small-arms
fire and grenades and raised to improve the field of fire


A World War II hexagonal pillbox - on the bank of the Mells River at Lullington, Somerset, England.


fosse

a ditch or moat


scree

a collection of broken rock fragments at the base of a cliff or other steep rocky mass that has accumulated through periodic rockfall. Landforms associated with these materials are often called talus deposits.

porphyry

an igneous rock with large crystals in a fine-grained matrix, or associated mineral deposit


pumice

a volcanic rock that consists of highly vesicular rough textured volcanic glass, which may or may not contain crystals.




scoria

1. the refuse from melting of metals or reduction of ores : SLAG
2: rough vesicular cindery lava


vesicle

a small enclosed cavity found in some volcanic rock, such as basalt


bitumen

asphalt


naphtha

a flammable liquid made from distilling petroleum. It looks like gasoline. Naphtha is used to dilute heavy oil to help move it through pipelines, to make high-octane gas, to make lighter fluid, and even to clean metal


ashlar

finely dressed (cut, worked) stone, either an individual stone that has been worked until squared or the structure built of it. Ashlar is the finest stone masonry unit, generally cuboid, mentioned by Vitruvius as opus isodomum, or less frequently trapezoidal.


verdigris

a green pigment obtained through the application of acetic acid to copper plates[2] or the natural patina formed when copper, brass or bronze is weathered and exposed to air or seawater over time


kohl

an ancient eye cosmetic, traditionally made by grinding stibnite (Sb2S3) for similar purposes to charcoal used in mascara. It is widely used in the Middle East, North Africa, the Mediterranean, Eastern Europe, Latin America, South Asia, Southeast Asia, the Horn of Africa,


creosote

carbonaceous chemicals formed by the distillation of various tars and pyrolysis of plant-derived material, such as wood or fossil fuel. They are typically used as preservatives or antiseptics. Some creosote types were
used historically as a treatment for components of seagoing and outdoor wood structures to prevent rot


potash

includes various mined and manufactured salts that contain potassium in water-soluble form. The name derives from pot ash, which refers to plant ashes or wood ash soaked in water in a pot, the primary means of
manufacturing the product before the Industrial Era. The word potassium is derived from potash.


stibnite

a sulfide mineral with the formula Sb2S3. This soft grey material crystallizes in an orthorhombic space group. It is the most important source for the metalloid antimony


antimony

A lustrous gray metalloid. Antimony compounds have been known since ancient times and were powdered for use as medicine and cosmetics, often known by the Arabic name, kohl.


cerise




carmine

a pigment of a bright-red color obtained from the aluminium salt of carminic acid; it is also a general term for a particularly deep-red color.




Vermilion




puce




chartreuse




ecru




fuscous




nones

the ninth hour of the traditional Christian liturgy


Viaticum

a term used especially in the Catholic Church for the Eucharist (also called Holy Communion) administered, with or without Anointing of the Sick (also called Extreme Unction), to a person who is dying


seraglio

the sequestered living quarters used by wives and concubines in an Ottoman household


paladin

In the medieval chanson de geste cycle of the Matter of France, the paladins or Twelve Peers are the twelve foremost knights of Charlemagne's court, comparable to the Knights of the Round Table in Arthurian romance. They represent the valour of
Christian chivalry against the Saracen invasion of Europe.


odalisque

a chambermaid or a female attendant in a Turkish seraglio, particularly the court ladies in the household of the Ottoman sultan


shagreen

a type of rawhide consisting of rough untanned skin, historically from a horse's or onager's back


labrys

a double-headed axe. In Greek and Roman mythology, it's associated with Amazons, as well as various goddesses including Laphria, Artemis, and Demeter. In the 1970s, lesbians embraced it as a symbol representing lesbian feminism.



halberd

a two-handed pole weapon that came to prominent use during the 14th, 15th, and 16th centuries.




assegai

a pole weapon used for throwing, usually a light spear or javelin made of wood and pointed with iron or fire-hardened tip.




furbelow

ruffle or frill


flagon

a large container in which drink is served, typically with a handle and spout




Wain

wagon



gibbous

convex or protuberant


riband

a ribbon (archaic)


brigand

highway robber, plunderer


simony

the act of selling church offices and roles


sustentation

the support or maintenance of someone or something, especially through the provision of money


sumac

flowering plants in the genus Rhus and related genera, in the family Anacardiaceae. The dried and powdered fruits of Rhus coriaria are used as a spice in Middle Eastern cuisine


bagnio

prison for hostages in Constantinople, which was near the bath-house, and thereafter all the slave quarters in the Ottoman Empire and the Barbary regencies;

a bath or bath-house. In England, it was originally used to name coffeehouses that offered Turkish baths, but by 1740[2] it signified a boarding house

the prisons of the galley slaves in the French Navy; after galley service was abolished, the word continued to be used as a generic term for any hard labour prison


tierce

Tierce, a commune in France
Tierce, an old English unit of volume
Tierce, an organ stop, also known as a seventeenth
Tierce (fencing), a fencing manoeuvre
Tierce, an archaic term for one-sixtieth of a second


alembic

an alchemical still consisting of two vessels connected by a tube, used for distilling.




ferrule

a metal tube crimped over stranded wire to secure the strands within a screw terminal




pilgarlic

1. a bald head; a bald-headed man
2. a man looked upon with humorous contempt or mock pity


hobbledehoy

an awkward gawky youth


emetic

such as syrup of ipecac, is a substance that induces vomiting when administered orally or by injection


aperient

(chiefly of a drug) used to relieve constipation.


aperitif

a refreshing alcoholic drink that is served before a meal to stimulate the appetite. Sort of a liquid appetizer. Stems from the Latin "apierire," meaning "to open, or uncover."


chamois


a type of porous leather, traditionally the skin of the chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra), a type of European mountain goat but today it is made almost exclusively from the flesh split of a sheepskin


palanquin


(in India and the East) a covered litter for one passenger, consisting of a large box carried on two horizontal poles by four or six bearers




Majolica

painted pottery




Faience

the general English language term for fine tin-glazed pottery


potsherd

a pottery fragment usually unearthed as an archaeological relic


delftware

Dutch tin-glazed earthenware, a form of faience. Most of it is blue and white pottery, and the city of Delft in the Netherlands was the major centre of production.


droshky

a low four-wheeled open carriage of a kind formerly used in Russia.


aigrette

a headdress consisting of a white egret's feather or other decoration such as a spray of gems.


flocculent

1 : resembling wool especially in loose fluffy organization
2 : containing, consisting of, or occurring in the form of loosely aggregated particles or soft flakes a flocculent precipitate


Shirring

In sewing, shirring is two or more rows of gathers that are used to decorate parts of garments, usually the sleeves, bodice or yoke. The term is also sometimes used to refer to the pleats seen in stage curtains.


A close up of the shirr on the blouse


Tutti

an Italian word literally meaning all or together and is used as a musical term, for the whole orchestra as opposed to the soloist. It is applied similarly to choral music, where the whole section or choir is called to sing.


scathe

harm, injury


-------------------------------------FABRICS-----------------------------------------------------------


drugget

a coarse woollen fabric felted or woven, self-coloured or printed one side


cretonne

a strong, white fabric with a hempen warp and linen weft


brocade

a class of richly decorative shuttle-woven fabrics, often made in colored silks and with or without gold and silver threads.[1] The name, related to the same root as the word "broccoli", comes from Italian broccato meaning "embossed cloth", originally past participle of the verb broccare "to stud, set with nails", from brocco, "small nail", from Latin broccus, "projecting, pointed"


twill

a type of textile weave with a pattern of diagonal parallel ribs


serge

type of twill fabric that has diagonal lines or ridges on both sides, made with a two-up, two-down weave. The worsted variety is used in making military uniforms, suits, great coats and trench coats. Its counterpart, silk serge, is used for linings. French serge is a softer, finer variety.


chenille

a type of yarn, or fabric made from it. Chenille is the French word for caterpillar whose fur the yarn is supposed to resemble.


tulle

a lightweight, very fine, stiff netting. It can be made of various fibres, including silk, nylon, polyester and rayon. Polyester is the most common fibre used for tulle. Tulle is most commonly used for veils, gowns (particularly wedding gowns), and ballet tutus.


tarlatan

a starched, open-weave fabric, much like cheesecloth. It is used to wipe the ink off a plate during the intaglio inking process. The open weave allows for the tarlatan to pick up a large quantity of ink.


damask

a rich, heavy silk or linen fabric with a pattern woven into it, used for table linen and upholstery


Italian silk polychrome damasks, 14th century


cambric / batiste

one of the finest and densest kinds of cloth


sateen

a fabric made using a satin weave structure but made with spun yarns instead of filament


moire

a textile with a wavy (watered) appearance produced mainly from silk, but also wool, cotton and rayon


Lisle

fabric is a fine, lustrous fabric made from lisle yarn.


-------------------------------------FABRICS-----------------------------------------------------------


demesne

In the feudal system, the demesne was all the land which was retained by a lord of the manor for his own use and support, under his own management, as distinguished from land sub-enfeoffed by him to others as sub-tenants


Puttee

a covering for the lower part of the leg from the ankle to the knee, alternatively known as: legwraps, leg bindings, winingas, or wickelbander. They consist of a long narrow piece of cloth wound tightly, and spirally round the leg


Close-up of a World War I era United States Army infantryman's puttees


volplane

(of an aeroplane) make a steep controlled dive or downward flight


usquebaugh

whiskey; From Irish, Scottish Gaelic uisge beatha (“water of life”)


charivari

a folk custom in which a mock parade was staged through a community accompanied by a discordant mock serenade.


Depiction of charivari, early 14th century (from the Roman de Fauvel)


barcarole

a traditional folk song sung by Venetian gondoliers


withers

The part of the back of a four-legged animal that is between the shoulder blades; in many species the highest point of the body and the standard place to measure the animal's height.


demned

(Probably a semi-learned borrowing from Latin dīgnus, modeled after words such as lemn, semn.) dignified, worthy, respectable


cincture

a rope-like or ribbon-like article sometimes worn with certain Christian liturgical vestments, encircling the body around or above the waist


fauteuil

a style of open-arm chair with a primarily exposed wooden frame originating in France during the early 17th century


decolletee

(of a woman's dress or top) having a low neckline


Fuchsia




crozier

a stylized staff carried by high-ranking Roman Catholic, Eastern Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, Anglican, and some Lutheran, United Methodist and Pentecostal prelates


bittern

name given to birds belonging to the subfamily Botaurinae of the heron family Ardeidae. Bitterns tend to be shorter necked and more secretive than other members of the family.


osprey

also called sea hawk, river hawk, and fish hawk -- is a diurnal, fish-eating bird of prey with a cosmopolitan range. It is a large raptor, reaching more than 60 cm (24 in) in length and 180 cm (71 in) across the wings


raptor

bird of prey


besom

a traditional broom constructed from a bundle of twigs tied to a stout pole


cockatrice

a mythical beast, essentially a two-legged dragon or serpent-like creature with a rooster's head


Cicatrice

scar


rota

a cylinder, open on one side, that is built inside a wall of a monastery, nunnery or foundling hospital.It was used for exchanging mail and food with cloistered clergy, being their only communication with the world


billet

a living quarters to which a soldier is assigned to sleep. Originally, a "billet" (from the French) was a note, commonly used in the 18th and early 19th centuries as a "billet of invitation." A particular use of the word in this sense is to denote an order issued to a soldier entitling him to quarters with a certain person.


charwoman

cleaning girl or woman


beadle

an official of a church or synagogue who may usher, keep order, make reports, and assist in religious functions; or a minor official who carries out various civil, educational, or ceremonial duties.


remonstrate

make a forcefully reproachful protest


stave

a stick; a narrow length of wood with a slightly bevelled edge to form the sides of barrels, tanks and pipelines


murex

medium to large sized predatory tropical sea snails. These are carnivorous marine gastropod molluscs


nacelle

a housing, separate from the fuselage, that holds engines, fuel, or equipment on an aircraft


semiquaver

a sixteenth note played for half the duration of an eighth note (quaver)


goiter

a swelling in the neck resulting from an enlarged thyroid gland


baldaquin; baldachin

a canopy of state typically placed over an altar or throne




anchorite

someone who, for religious reasons, withdraws from secular society so as to be able to lead an intensely prayer-oriented, ascetic, or Eucharist-focused life


kithara

an ancient Greek musical instrument in the lyre or lyra family. In modern Greek the word kithara has come to mean "guitar", a word which etymologically stems from kithara.


comestible

an item of food


Hookah

a single- or multi-stemmed instrument for vaporizing and smoking flavored tobacco (often Mu‘assel), or sometimes cannabis or opium, whose vapor or smoke is passed through a water basin--often glass-based--before inhalation.


narghile

another word for hookah


Jansenism

a theological movement, primarily in France, that emphasized original sin, human depravity, the necessity of divine grace and predestination. The movement originated from the posthumously published work of the Dutch theologian Cornelius Jansen, who died in 1638.


Janissaries / janizaries

elite infantry units that formed the Ottoman Sultan's household troops, bodyguards and the first modern standing army in Europe.


tarboosh

The fez (more correctly tarbush) is a felt headdress in the shape of a short cylindrical peakless hat, usually red, and sometimes with a tassel attached to the top. It is named after the city of its origins, the Moroccan city Fez, the capital of the Kingdom of Morocco until 1927.


pastille

a type of candy or medicinal pill made of a thick liquid that has been solidified and is meant to be consumed by light chewing and allowing it to dissolve in the mouth. They are also used to describe certain forms of incense. A pastille is also known as a "troche", or a medicated lozenge that dissolves like candy.


Piastre

any of a number of units of currency. The term originates from the Italian for "thin metal plate". The name was applied to Spanish and Hispanic American pieces of eight, or pesos, by Venetian traders in the Levant in the 16th century.


Oremus

the invitation to pray, said before short prayers in the Roman Catholic Mass and the Lutheran Divine Service, as well as other Western liturgies.


Pantechnicon

currently usually shortened to pantec, was originally a furniture removal van drawn by horses and used by the British company "The Pantechnicon" for delivering and collecting furniture which its customers wished to store.


tergiversation

evasion of straightforward action or clear-cut statement : EQUIVOCATION


vecchio

meaning "old one" or simply "old"), is a category of aged, male characters from the Italian commedia dell'arte. The primary members of this group are Pantalone, Il Dottore and Il Capitano.[citation needed] Pantalone and Il Dottore are the alter ego of each other, Pantalone being the decadent wealthy merchant, and Il Dottore being the decadent erudite.They are overwhelmingly the antagonists, opposing the love of the innamorati;


coronet

a small crown consisting of ornaments fixed on a metal ring. By one definition, a coronet differs from a crown in that a coronet never has arches, and from a tiara in that a coronet completely encircles the head, while a tiara does not.


scapegrace

a mischievous or wayward person, especially a young person or child; a rascal.


ophicleides

a keyed brass instrument similar to the tuba. It is a conical-bore keyed instrument belonging to the bugle family and has a similar shape to the sudrophone.


equerry

a senior attendant with responsibilities for the horses of a person of rank


chasseur

troops trained for rapid action


calash

a barouche; a large, open, four-wheeled carriage, both heavy and luxurious, drawn by two horses


distraite

distracted or absent-minded.


virago

a domineering, violent, or bad-tempered woman; a woman of masculine strength or spirit; a female warrior


termagant

a violent, overbearing, turbulent, brawling, quarrelsome woman; a virago, shrew, vixen


beldam

an old woman; a malicious or loathsome old woman

Seneschal

a senior position filled by a court appointment within a royal, ducal, or noble household during the Middle Ages and early Modern period historically a steward or majordomo of a medieval great house.


Heliotrope

Purple-pink flower. The name "heliotrope" derives from the old idea that the inflorescences of these plants turned their rows of flowers to the sun.
(helios) is greek for "sun" (trepein) means "to turn".


Verbena

flowers are small, with five petals, and borne in dense spikes. Typically some shade of blue, they may also be white, pink, or purple, especially in cultivars.


Inflorescence

a group or cluster of flowers arranged on a stem that is composed of a main branch or a complicated arrangement of branches. Morphologically, it is the modified part of the shoot of seed plants where flowers are formed


prat

BRITISH
an incompetent or stupid person; an idiot.

a person's buttocks.


pollarding

a pruning system involving the removal of the upper branches of a tree, promotes a dense head of foliage and branches.


petifogging

placing undue emphasis on petty details; to engage in legal chicanery; to quibble over insignificant details : CAVIL, BICKER


gonfalon

a type of heraldic flag or banner, often pointed, swallow-tailed, or with several streamers, and suspended from a crossbar in an identical manner to the ancient Roman vexillum.


soutane

a type of cassock worn by Roman Catholic priests


postilion

one who rides as a guide on the near horse of one of the pairs attached to a coach or post chaise especially without a coachman.


girandole

an ornamental branched candlestick or light fixture consisting of several lights, often resembling a small chandelier. Girandoles came into use about the second half of the 17th century




chalybeate

also known as ferruginous waters, are mineral spring waters containing salts of iron.


scaramouche


a stock clown character of the commedia dell'arte (comic theatrical arts of Italian literature). The role combined characteristics of the Zanni (servant) and the Capitano (masked henchman). Usually attired in black Spanish dress and burlesquing a Don, he was often beaten by Harlequin for his boasting and cowardice.


eidolon

In ancient Greek literature, an eidolon (plural: eidola or eidolons) (Greek : "image, idol, double, apparition, phantom, ghost") is a spirit-image of a living or dead person; a shade or phantom look-alike of the human form.


undine

a category of imaginary elemental beings associated with water, first named in the alchemical writings of Paracelsus. Similar creatures are found in classical literature, particularly Ovid's Metamorphoses. Later writers developed the undine into a water nymph in its own right, and it continues to live in modern literature and art through such adaptations as Hans Christian Andersen's "The Little Mermaid".


kobold

a sprite stemming from Germanic mythology and surviving into modern times in German folklore.

Although usually invisible, a kobold can materialize in the form of an animal, fire, a human being, and a candle. The most common depictions of kobolds show
them as humanlike figures the size of small children. Kobolds who live in human homes wear the clothing of peasants; those who live in mines are hunched and
ugly; kobolds who live on ships smoke pipes and wear sailor clothing.


Ogdoad

In Egyptian mythology, the Ogdoad was a system of eight deities, four gods and their consorts (the number four was considered to represent completeness).
Each pair represented the male and female aspects of the four creative powers or sources.


Korybantes

According to Greek mythology, the Korybantes were the armed and crested dancers who worshipped the Phrygian goddess Cybele with drumming and dancing. They are also called the Kurbantes in Phrygia. The conventional
English equivalent is "Corybants".


dybbuk

In Jewish mythology, a dybbuk meaning 'adhere' or 'cling') is a malicious possessing spirit believed to be the dislocated soul of a dead person. It supposedly leaves the host body once it has accomplished its goal, sometimes after being exorcised.


escapement

a mechanical linkage in mechanical watches and clocks that gives impulses to the timekeeping element and periodically releases the gear train to move forward, advancing the clock's hands. The impulse action transfers energy to the clock's timekeeping element (usually a pendulum or balance wheel) to replace the energy lost to friction during its cycle and keep the timekeeper oscillating.




scrimshaw

scrollwork, engravings, and carvings done in bone or ivory




Fresnel lens

a type of composite compact lens originally developed by French physicist Augustin-Jean Fresnel for lighthouses. It has been called "the invention that saved a million ships."




colporteur

someone employed by a religious society to distribute bibles and other religious tracts.




bivouac

improvised camp site or shelter that is usually of a temporary nature, used especially by soldiers or persons engaged in scouting and mountain climbing.




suzerain

Suzerainty is any relationship in which one region or polity controls the foreign policy and relations of a tributary state, while allowing the tributary state to have internal autonomy.


peculation

wrongful appropriation or embezzlement of shared or public property, usually by a person entrusted with the guardianship of that property


pinnace

a light boat, propelled by oars or sails, carried aboard merchant and war vessels in the Age of Sail to serve as a tender


Pinnace attached to HMS London chasing a dhow in 1881


condign

(of punishment or retribution) appropriate to the crime or wrongdoing; fitting and deserved


antimassacar

doily; an ornamental mat, typically made of paper or fabric, and variously used for protecting surfaces or binding flowers, in food service presentation, or as a head covering or clothing ornamentation.


tarantella

a group of various folk dances characterized by a fast upbeat tempo, usually in 6/8 time (sometimes 12/8 or 4/4), accompanied by tambourines.


ritornello

a recurring passage in Baroque music for orchestra or chorus


sarabande

a dance in triple metre. The dance may have been of Guatemalan and Mexican origin evolved from a Spanish dance with Arab influences, danced with a lively double line of couples with castanets.


hauberk

a shirt of mail. The term is usually used to describe a shirt reaching at least to mid-thigh and including sleeves.


arquebus

a form of long gun that appeared in Europe during the 15th century.


quietus

death or something that causes death, regarded as a release from life; something that has a calming or soothing effect.


bagatelle

a short literary piece in light style, generally considered an unimportant or insignificant thing or trifle; a billiards-derived indoor table game


disembogue

to flow or come forth from or as if from a channel


pilgaric

1a : a bald head
b : a bald-headed man
2 : a man looked upon with humorous contempt or mock pity


hobbledehoy

an awkward gawky youth


mommet

may refer to:

Scarecrow
Poppet


Dragonnades

a French government policy instituted by King Louis XIV in 1681 to intimidate Huguenot families into either leaving France or converting to Catholicism. This involved the billeting of ill-disciplined dragoons in Protestant households with implied permission to abuse the inhabitants and destroy or steal their possessions.


anchylosis

a stiffness of a joint due to abnormal adhesion and rigidity of the bones of the joint


auscultate

listening to the internal sounds of the body


jalousie

a window composed of parallel glass, acrylic, or wooden louvres set in a frame. The louvres are joined onto a track so that they may be tilted open and shut in unison to control airflow, usually by turning a crank.


indurate

physically or morally hardened; to make unfeeling, stubborn, or obdurate
2 : to make hardy : INURE
3 : to make hard
great heat indurates clay
4 : to establish firmly : CONFIRM


arras

A hanging tapestry, known chiefly for the one behind which Polonius hides in Gertrude's closet scene, in Shakespeare's Hamlet (Act III, Scene iv)


Enchiridion

a short manual of Stoic ethical advice compiled by Arrian, a 2nd-century disciple of the Greek philosopher Epictetus


fichu

a large, square kerchief worn by women to fill in the low neckline of a bodice.


commination

the action of threatening divine vengeance.
the recital of divine threats against sinners in the Anglican Liturgy for Ash Wednesday.


bracken

a genus of large, coarse ferns


Candaulism

sexual practice or fantasy in which a man exposes his female partner, or images of her, to other people for their voyeuristic pleasure.


windlass

an apparatus for moving heavy weights. Typically, a windlass consists of a horizontal cylinder (barrel), which is rotated by the turn of a crank or belt. A winch is affixed to one or both ends, and a cable or rope is wound around the winch, pulling a weight attached to the opposite end.


Houri

beings in Islamic mythology, described in English translations as "and splendid companions of equal age [or well-matched]", "lovely eyed", of "modest gaze" and virgins who will accompany the faithful in Jannah (Muslim paradise).


rebus

a puzzle device which combines the use of illustrated pictures with individual letters to depict words and/or phrases. It was a favorite form of heraldic expression used in the Middle Ages to denote surnames.


deboshed

1590s, anglicized spelling of French pronunciation of debauched "dissolute" (see debauch). Obsolete in England after mid-17c., retained in Scotland, and given a revival of sorts by Scott (1826), so that it turns up in 19c. literary works.


verger

an official in a church who acts as a caretaker and attendant; an officer who carries a rod before a bishop or dean as a symbol of office.


Quirites

an early name of the citizens of Ancient Rome. Combined in the phrase populus Romanus quirites (or quiritium) it denoted the individual citizen as contrasted with the community.


ptisan

A medicinal infusion, such as sweetened barley water.
Origin of ptisan:

Middle English tisane peeled barley, barley water from Old French from Latin ptisana, tisana from Greek ptisanē from ptissein to crush


decoction

a method of extraction by boiling herbal or plant material to dissolve the chemicals of the material, which may include stems, roots, bark and rhizomes.


rhizome

a modified subterranean plant stem that sends out roots and shoots from its nodes.
(rom Ancient Greek: rhízōma "mass of roots")


agnus-castus

or monk's pepper, is a native of the Mediterranean region.


autochthonous

In Ancient Greece, the concept of autochthones (from Ancient Greek autos "self," and khthon "soil"; i.e. "people sprung from earth itself") means the original inhabitants of a country as opposed to settlers, and those of their descendants who kept themselves free from an admixture of foreign peoples.


chthonic

relating to or inhabiting the underworld.


caesura

caesurae; (Latin for "cutting"), also written cæsura and cesura, is a break in a verse where one phrase ends and the following phrase begins. It may be a comma, a tick, or two lines, either slashed (//) or upright (||). In time value this break may vary between the slightest perception of silence all the way up to a full pause.


haptics

any form of interaction involving touch. It can refer to: Haptic communication, the means by which people and other animals communicate via touching. Haptic perception, the process of recognizing objects through touch.


quinsy


Peritonsillar abscess (PTA), also known as a quinsy, is pus due to an infection behind the tonsil.[2] Symptoms include fever, throat pain, trouble opening the mouth, and a change to the voice.[1]


redan

a term related to fortifications. It is a work in a V-shaped salient angle towards an expected attack. It can be made from earthworks or other material


aleatory


the incorporation of chance into the process of creation, especially the creation of art or media. The word derives from the Latin word alea, the rolling of dice.


caisson

1. a large watertight chamber, open at the bottom, from which the water is kept out by air pressure and in which construction work may be carried out under water.
2. a two-wheeled cart for carrying ammunition, also used in certain state and military funerals


cuirasser

cavalry equipped with armour and firearms, first appearing in late 15th-century Europe.


henge

Neolithic earthwork that features a ring-shaped bank and ditch, with the ditch inside the bank.


espalier

horticultural and ancient agricultural practice of controlling woody plant growth for the production of fruit, by pruning and tying branches to a frame. Plants are frequently shaped in formal patterns, flat against a structure such as a wall, fence, or trellis


surtout

a man's over-frock coat, of the kind worn by cavalry officers over their uniforms in the 18th and early 19th centuries; also a French word meaning "above all" or "especially".


pismire

ant


banlieue

a suburb of a large city. Banlieues are divided into autonomous administrative entities and do not constitute part of the city proper. For instance, 80% of the inhabitants of the Paris metropolitan area live outside the city of Paris. Like the city centre, suburbs may be rich, middle-class or poor--Versailles, Le Vesinet, Maisons-Laffitte and Neuilly-sur-Seine are affluent banlieues of Paris, while Clichy-sous-Bois, Bondy and Corbeil-Essonnes are less so. However, since the 1970s, banlieues has taken on an additional meaning in French of France, becoming a popular word for low-income housing projects (HLMs) in which mainly black immigrants and French of foreign descent reside, in what are often called poverty traps.


ambuscade

ambush


distich

couplet


atabrine

another name for quinacrine, a synthetic compound derived from acridine, used as an anthelmintic and antimalarial drug.


laterite

a reddish clayey material, hard when dry, forming a topsoil in some tropical or subtropical regions and sometimes used for building.
a clayey soil horizon rich in iron and aluminium oxides, formed by weathering of igneous rocks in moist warm climates.


Temne

The Temne people, also called Time, Temen, Timni or Timmanee people, are a West African ethnic group. They are predominantly found in the Northern Province of Sierra Leone, as well as the national capital Freetown. Some Temne are also found in Guinea.


Angostura bitters

a concentrated bitters (herbal alcoholic preparation) based on gentian, herbs and spices,[1] by House of Angostura in Trinidad and Tobago. It is typically used for flavouring beverages


guichet

a grill opening (as a hatch or wicket especially a ticket window)


apsis

denotes either of the two extreme points (i.e., the farthest or nearest point) in the orbit of a planetary body about its primary body


aphelion

the apsis for Earth's farthest point from the Sun


perihelion

the apsis for Earth's nearest point, the


chassis

the base frame of a car, carriage, or other wheeled vehicle; the outer structural framework of a piece of audio, radio, or computer equipment.


oleograph

a print textured to resemble an oil painting.


menstruum

a substance that dissolves a solid or holds it in suspension : SOLVENT


avoirdupois

a measurement system of weights which uses pounds and ounces as units. It was first commonly used in the 13th century and was updated in 1959.


cowrie

the common name for a group of small to large sea snails, marine gastropod mollusks in the family Cypraeidae, the cowries.


escritoire

A secretary desk made of a base of wide drawers topped by a desk with a hinged desktop surface, which is in turn topped by a bookcase usually closed with a pair of doors, often made of glass. The whole is usually a single, tall and heavy piece of furniture.


cloaca


In animal anatomy, the posterior orifice that serves as the only opening for the digestive, reproductive, and urinary tracts (if present) of many vertebrate animals, opening at the vent. All amphibians, reptiles, and a few mammals (monotremes, tenrecs, golden moles, and marsupial moles) have this orifice, from which they excrete both urine and feces; this is in contrast to most placental mammals, which have two or three separate orifices for evacuation.


infusoria

a collective term for minute aquatic creatures such as ciliates, euglenoids, protozoa, unicellular algae and small invertebrates that exist in freshwater ponds.


Vibrion

an antiquated term for microorganisms, especially pathogenic ones;


bantling

a very young child


martingale

any of several designs of tack that are used on horses to control head carriage


lazzaroni

In the Age of Revolution, the Lazzaroni (or Lazzari) of Naples were the poorest of the lower class (Italian lazzaroni or lazzari) in the city and kingdom of Naples, Italy. Described as "street people under a chief", they were often depicted as "beggars"--which
some actually were, while others subsisted partly by service as messengers, porters, etc.


squib

1.a small firework that burns with a hissing sound before exploding.

2.a short piece of satirical writing.


legerdemain

sleight of hand


abactinal

(Zoology) zoology (of organisms showing radial symmetry) situated away from or opposite to the mouth; aboral


daedal

intricate, skillful, artistic


raddle

to mark or paint with raddle; to twist together : INTERWEAVE


campanile

A bell tower


diapason

1. an organ stop sounding a main register of flue pipes, typically of eight-foot pitch.
2. a grand swelling burst of harmony.


bourdon

the heaviest of the bells that belong to a musical instrument, especially a chime or a carillon, and produces its lowest tone.


sachet

a small scented cloth bag filled with herbs, potpourri, or aromatic ingredients.


conation

the mental faculty of purpose, desire, or will to perform an action; volition.


Septuagint

the earliest extant Koine Greek translation of books from the Hebrew Bible, various biblical apocrypha, and deuterocanonical books.The first five books of the Hebrew Bible, known as the Torah or the Pentateuch, were translated in the mid-3rd century BCE; they did not survive as original translation texts, however, except as rare fragments. The remaining books of the Greek Old Testament are presumably translations from 200 BCE to 50 CE.


marcid

1. Pining; lean; withered.
2. Characterized by emaciation, as a fever.


grimalkin/malkin

In the opening scene of Macbeth, one of the three witches planning to meet with Macbeth suddenly announces, "I come, Graymalkin." The witch is responding to the summons of her familiar, or guardian spirit, which is embodied in the form of a cat. Shakespeare's "graymalkin" literally means "gray cat."


spavin

SWELLING
especially : a bony enlargement of the hock of a horse associated with strain


motet

a mainly vocal musical composition, one of the pre-eminent polyphonic forms of Renaissance music. The late 13th-century theorist Johannes de Grocheo believed that the motet was "not to be celebrated in the presence of common people, because they do not notice its subtlety.


purdah

a religious and social practice of female seclusion prevalent among some Muslim and Hindu communities. It takes two forms: physical segregation of the sexes and the requirement that women cover their bodies so as to cover their skin and conceal their form.


cantonment

a military or police quarters. The word derives from the French word canton meaning corner or district and describes a place during a military campaign, such as winter quarters, where units of an army may be
encamped for longer periods than they are during advances and retreats. The term shares an etymological origin with the Swiss Cantons though the meaning has widely diverged.


casement window

a window that is attached to its frame by one or more hinges at the side. They are used singly or in pairs within a common frame, in which case they are hinged on the outside.


Morganatic marriage

sometimes called a left-handed marriage, is a marriage between people of unequal social rank, which in the context of royalty prevents the passage of the husband's titles and
privileges to the wife and any children born of the marriage.

scrannel

HARSH, UNMELODIOUS


marmoreal

made of or compared to marble.


pennant

a commemorative flag typically used to show support for a particular athletic team.


pannier

a basket, bag, box, or similar container, carried in pairs either slung over the back of a beast of burden


purulent

consisting of, containing, or discharging pus.


suppurate

undergo the formation of pus; fester.


objurgate

"to chide, reprove," 1610s, from Latin obiurgatus, past participle of obiurgare "to chide, rebuke," from ob- (see ob-) + iurgare "to quarrel, scold," from phrase iure agere "to deal in a lawsuit," from ablative of ius "right; law; suit" (see just (adj.)) + agere "to set in motion, drive forward, do, perform," also "plead a cause at law" (from PIE root *ag- "to drive, draw out or forth, move").


nonage & dotage

nonage is a period of youth, lack of maturity; dotage the age at which one becomes dotty.


eleemosynary

of, relating to, or supported by charity


sepulture

burial; interment


madeleine

a traditional sweet cake from France


brioche

a pastry of French origin that is similar to a highly enriched bread, and whose high egg and butter content give it a rich and tender crumb


gooseberry

a species of Ribes (which also includes the currants).


cardoon

also called the artichoke thistle or globe artichoke, is a thistle in the sunflower family


brill

a species of flatfish in the turbot family

penobscot

an indigenous peoples in North America with members who reside in the United States and Canada. They are organized as a federally recognized tribe in Maine and as a First Nations band government in the Atlantic provinces and Quebec.


targe

refers to various types of shields used by infantry troops from the 13th to 16th centuries, or earlier.[1] More specifically, a targe was a concave shield fitted with enarmes on the inside




chignon

hairstyle achieved by pinning the hair into a knot at the nape of the neck or at the back of the head


peruke

wig


firkin

The ale or beer firkin (from Middle Dutch vierdekijn meaning "fourth") is a quarter of an ale or beer barrel or half a kilderkin. This unit is much smaller than the wine firkin. Casks in this size (themselves called firkins) are the most common container for cask ale.


gherkin

a variety of cucumber


jerkin

a man's short close-fitting jacket, made usually of light-coloured leather, and often without sleeves, worn over the doublet in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries


Robert Dudley in a slashed, probably leather, jerkin of the 1560s


doublet

a man's snug-fitting jacket that is shaped and fitted to the man's body which was worn in Spain


soutane

cassock or soutane is an item of Christian clerical clothing used by the clergy of Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Anglican, Lutheran, and Reformed churches


palmiped

web-footed; a web-footed bird (archaic)


wittol

a man who is aware and tolerant of his wife's infidelity; an acquiescent cuckold.


rack-rent

an extortionate or very high rent, especially an annual rent equivalent to the full value of the property to which it relates.


alterity

the state of being other or different; otherness.
"the problem of alterity occurs also in homogeneous societies"


diuturnity

the quality or state of being continuous or lasting


decretory

relating to or fixed by a decree or decision


quincuncial

ADJECTIVE
1. consisting of or having the appearance of a quincunx
2. (of the petals or sepals of a five-membered corolla or calyx in the bud) arranged so that two members overlap another two completely and the fifth overlaps on one margin and is itself overlapped on the other




U finita

decussation

1 : the action of crossing (as of nerve fibers) especially in the form of an X
2 : a crossed tract of nerve fibers passing between centers on opposite sides of the nervous system


frustum

Obverse and reverse

homologous

sepal & calyx

obloquy

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyclotron

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isotope

selah


velleity

plural velleities
Definition of velleity
1: the lowest degree of volition
2: a slight wish or tendency : INCLINATIO

apercu

a comment or brief reference that makes an illuminating or entertaining point.
"the narrative is enlivened by apercus of Butler, Kennedy, and other contemporaries"

chitterlings

quirt



Hypogeum

Patera

pippin

pipkin

bobbin

oakum

malmsey

a strong, sweet white wine imported from Greece and the eastern Mediterranean islands.

hippocras

a drink made from wine mixed with sugar and spices, usually including cinnamon, and possibly heated.

bustard

(PUT WITH BITTERN AND OTHER BIRDS)






Laquearia

is a genus of fungi in the Rhytismatales order. The relationship of this taxon to other taxa within the order is unknown (incertae sedis), and it has not yet

been placed with certainty into any family.[1]

It also can mean a paneled ceiling. This is used in literary works such as The Waste Land, and Aeneid.




https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transverse_wave



prehensive

Cirque

Interferometer

Milch

the German word for milk, and an old English word for a milk-producing cow.

duvet

a type of bedding consisting of a soft flat bag filled with either down, feathers, wool, cotton, silk, or a synthetic alternative

bailiwick

parure

chlorotic





categorematic vs. syncategorematic words

paronyms


https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asyndeton

syndeton (syndetic coordination) and polysyndeton

fess point

septate

columbarium

amanuensis

a literary or artistic assistant, in particular one who takes dictation or copies manuscripts.

Sirocco



ratlin

1. Any of the small ropes fastened horizontally to the shrouds of a ship and forming a ladder for going aloft.
2. The material used for these ropes.

noddy bird

castellated

having battlements.
"a castellated gatehouse"
(of a nut or other mechanical part) having grooves or slots on its upper face.


ursine

adjective
relating to or resembling bears.

Missal

A missal is a liturgical book containing all instructions and texts necessary for the celebration of Mass throughout the year. Wikipedia

congé

an unceremonious dismissal or rejection of someone.
"she gives him his congé, and at the same time avows her real love for him"


droil (countable and uncountable, plural droils)

(obsolete) A drudge. quotations
(obsolete) Mean labour; toil.


calabash

Clinker

helot

a member of a class of serfs in ancient Sparta, intermediate in status between slaves and citizens.
a serf or slave.

theurgy

the operation or effect of a supernatural or divine agency in human affairs.
a system of white magic practised by the early Neoplatonists.

baize

a coarse, typically green woollen material resembling felt, used for covering billiard and card tables.

Scrying

Scrying, also known by various names such as "seeing" or "peeping", is the practice of looking into a suitable medium in the hope of detecting significant messages or visions.

Sortilege

Cleromancy, a method of divination by casting of lots


Baobab

Caravanserai

St. Elmo's fire

riparian

relating to or situated on the banks of a river.
"all the riparian states must sign an agreement"
ECOLOGY
relating to wetlands adjacent to rivers and streams.
"the ranch's most expansive riparian habitat"


Bolus (digestion)

In digestion, a bolus (from Latin bolus, "ball") is a ball-like mixture of food and saliva that forms in the mouth during the process of chewing (which is largely an adaptation for plant-eating mammals).[1] It has the same color as the food being eaten, and the saliva gives it an alkaline pH. atin bolus, "ball") is a ball-like mixture of food and saliva that forms in the mouth during the process of chewing (which is largely an adaptation for plant-eating mammals).[1] It has the same color as the food being eaten, and the saliva gives it an alkaline pH.

Cicisbeo

In 18th- and 19th-century Italy, the cicisbeo (UK: /ˌtʃɪtʃɪzˈbeɪoʊ/ CHITCH-iz-BAY-oh,[1] US: /ˌtʃiːtʃ-/ CHEE-chiz-,[2] Italian: [tʃitʃiˈzbɛːo]; plural: cicisbei) or cavalier servente (French: chevalier servant) was the man who was the professed gallant or lover[3] of a woman married to someone else. With the knowledge and consent of the husband, the cicisbeo attended his mistress at public

Eiderdown

topiary

the art or practice of clipping shrubs or trees into ornamental shapes.
"a specialist in topiary art"
shrubs or trees clipped into ornamental shapes.
plural noun: topiaries
"a cottage surrounded by topiary and flowers"

douceur de vivre

Climacteric year

Slough

transhumance

the action or practice of moving livestock from one grazing ground to another in a seasonal cycle, typically to lowlands in winter and highlands in summer.

klaxon

an electric horn or warning hooter.
"the tug blew its klaxon three times"

Mage

Mage (paranormal), a practitioner of magic, the ability to attain objectives or acquire knowledge or wisdom using supernatural means

vademecum

noun: vademecum
a handbook or guide that is kept constantly at hand for consultation.

wherry

a light rowing boat used chiefly for carrying passengers.
BRITISH
a large light barge.

Dolmen

A dolmen (/ˈdɒlmɛn/) is a type of single-chamber megalithic tomb, usually consisting of two or more vertical megaliths supporting a large flat horizontal capstone or "table". Most date from the early Neolithic (4000–3000 BC) and were sometimes covered with earth or smaller stones to form a tumulus.


yegg

INFORMAL•NORTH AMERICAN
a burglar or safe-breaker.

Archon

a Greek word that means "ruler", frequently used as the title of a specific public office.


percipience


Samphire

Samphire is a name given to a number of succulent salt-tolerant plants that tend to be associated with water bodies.

pippin

any of numerous roundish or oblate varieties of apple.

oblate

Science: geometry) Flattened or depressed at the poles; as, the earth is an oblate spheroid.

Cantilever


pelerine

noun HISTORICAL

a woman's cape of lace or silk with pointed ends at the centre front, popular in the 19th century.

Pasquinade

bibelot

chorography

the systematic description and mapping of particular regions.

Euhemerism

Ley line

rangy

1.
(of a person) tall and slim with long, slender limbs.
"a pale, rangy boy in his late teens"

Similar:
long-legged
long-limbed
leggy

Bestiary


Semaphore

vendeuse

a saleswoman, especially one in a fashionable dress shop.


valetudinarianism - the state of being weak in health or body (especially from old age) debility, feebleness, frailness, frailty, infirmity. unfitness, softness - poor physical condition; being out of shape or out of condition (as from a life of ease and luxury)

carter

Driver of (horse-drawn) vehicles for transporting goods. A Carter typically drove a light two wheeled carriage.

Armillary sphere

cantrip

a mischievous or playful act; a trick.

chandler

1 : a maker or seller of tallow or wax candles and usually soap
2 : a retail dealer in provisions and supplies or equipment of a specified kind

Felucca

orgulous

adjectiveLITERARY
haughty.

chevron

a V-shaped line or stripe, especially one on the sleeve of a uniform indicating rank or length of service.

byre

nounBRITISH
a cowshed.

Quonset

nounTRADEMARK IN US
a building made of corrugated metal and having a semicircular cross section.

yurt


didgeridoo


Misology

Misology is defined as the hatred of reasoning; the revulsion or distrust of logical debate, argumentation, or the Socratic method.

aileron

chassis

the base frame of a car, carriage, or other wheeled vehicle.

ampoule

a small sealed glass capsule containing a liquid, especially a measured quantity ready for injecting.
"an ampoule of adrenaline"


Diorama

isinglass

1.
a kind of gelatin obtained from fish, especially sturgeon, and used in making jellies, glue, etc. and for fining real ale.
2.
US
mica or a similar material in thin transparent sheets.


coruscate

Supererogation

Description
In ethics, an act is supererogatory if it is good but not morally required to be done. It refers to an act that is more than is necessary, when another course of action—involving less—would still be an acceptable action. It differs from a duty, which is an act wrong not to do, and from acts morally neutral.

euphorbium

lansquenet

puncheon

cyma recta (architecture)

enfilade

fumarole (geology)

caltrops

friable

fasces (military)


felloes

the outer rim of a wheel, to which the spokes are fixed. (vehicles mechanics)

Cestus



(chiefly of a drug) used to relieve constipation. (medicine drugs)

galligaskins (clothing)

flageolet (musical instrument)

rebec (musical instrument)

sacrum (anatomy)

meniscus (anatomy)

a C-shaped piece of tough, rubbery cartilage that acts as a shock absorber between your shinbone and thighbone. It can be torn if you suddenly twist your knee while bearing weight on it.

rebec


Hippocras (drink alcohol beverage)


virid

muntin (Next to mullion )

cannelure (military weapon)

spall (rocks geography) / spald

Intaglio (art)

Bechamel (food, cooking)

inculpate

volute (architecture)

Haruspex roman history priests

Adipocere

Patroon

Whitsun/Pentecost

mantilla

pampa

Anisette

arnica

Madapollam

mullein

demijohn/carboy

A carboy, also known as a demijohn, is a rigid container with a typical capacity of 4 to 60 litres. Carboys are primarily used for transporting liquids, often water or chemicals. They are also used for in-home fermentation of beverages, often beer or wine


stevedore

a person employed at a dock to load and unload ships.

Vocab Plants and materials

Aguardiente

Vetiver

Balsam

Currant

Percale (Material)

prestidigitation

conjuring tricks performed as entertainment.

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